Truncate >

1. Create specified file if it does not exist.
2. Truncate (remove file's content)
3. Write to file

$ echo "first line" > /tmp/lines
$ echo "second line" > /tmp/lines

$ cat /tmp/lines
second line

Append >>

1. Create specified file if it does not exist.
2. Append file (writing at end of file).

# Overwrite existing file
$ echo "first line" > /tmp/lines

# Append a second line
$ echo "second line" >> /tmp/lines

$ cat /tmp/lines
first line
second line

File descriptors like 0 and 1 are pointers. We change what file descriptors point to with redirection. >/dev/null means 1 points to /dev/null.

First we point 1 (STDOUT) to /dev/null then point 2 (STDERR) to whatever 1 points to.

# STDERR is redirect to STDOUT: redirected to /dev/null,
# effectually redirecting both STDERR and STDOUT to /dev/null
echo 'hello' > /dev/null 2>&1

This can be further shortened to the following:

echo 'hello' &> /dev/null

However, this form may be undesirable in production if shell compatibility is a concern as it conflicts with POSIX, introduces parsing ambiguity, and shells without this feature will misinterpret it:

# Actual code
echo 'hello' &> /dev/null
echo 'hello' &> /dev/null 'goodbye'

# Desired behavior
echo 'hello' > /dev/null 2>&1
echo 'hello' 'goodbye' > /dev/null 2>&1

# Actual behavior
echo 'hello' &
echo 'hello' & goodbye > /dev/null

NOTE: &> is known to work as desired in both Bash and Zsh.

> redirect the standard output (aka STDOUT) of the current command into a file or another descriptor.

These examples write the output of the ls command into the file file.txt

ls >file.txt
> file.txt ls

The target file is created if it doesn't exists, otherwise this file is truncated.

The default redirection descriptor is the standard output or 1 when none is specified. This command is equivalent to the previous examples with the standard output explicitly indicated:

ls 1>file.txt

Note: the redirection is initialized by the executed shell and not by the executed command, therefore it is done before the command execution.

Sometimes you may want to output something by one program and input it into another program, but can't use a standard pipe.

ls -l | grep ".log"

You could simply write to a temporary file:

touch tempFile.txt
ls -l > tempFile.txt
grep ".log" < tempFile.txt

This works fine for most applications, however, nobody will know what tempFile does and someone might remove it if it contains the output of ls -l in that directory. This is where a named pipe comes into play:

mkfifo myPipe
ls -l > myPipe
grep ".log" < myPipe

myPipe is technically a file (everything is in Linux), so let's do ls -l in an empty directory that we just created a pipe in:

mkdir pipeFolder
cd pipeFolder
mkfifo myPipe
ls -l

The output is:

prw-r--r-- 1 root root 0 Jul 25 11:20 myPipe

Notice the first character in the permissions, it's listed as a pipe, not a file.

Now let's do something cool.

Open one terminal, and make note of the directory (or create one so that cleanup is easy), and make a pipe.

mkfifo myPipe

Now let's put something in the pipe.

echo "Hello from the other side" > myPipe

You'll notice this hangs, the other side of the pipe is still closed. Let's open up the other side of the pipe and let that stuff through.

Open another terminal and go to the directory that the pipe is in (or if you know it, prepend it to the pipe):

cat < myPipe

You'll notice that after hello from the other side is output, the program in the first terminal finishes, as does that in the second terminal.

Now run the commands in reverse. Start with cat < myPipe and then echo something into it. It still works, because a program will wait until something is put into the pipe before terminating, because it knows it has to get something.

Named pipes can be useful for moving information between terminals or between programs.

Pipes are small. Once full, the writer blocks until some reader reads the contents, so you need to either run the reader and writer in different terminals or run one or the other in the background:

ls -l /tmp > myPipe &
 cat < myPipe

More examples using named pipes:

$ { ls -l && cat file3; } >mypipe &
$ cat <mypipe
# Output: Prints ls -l data and then prints file3 contents on screen

$ ls -l >mypipe &
$ cat file3 >mypipe &
$ cat <mypipe
#Output: This prints on screen the contents of mypipe.

$ { pipedata=$(<mypipe) && echo "$pipedata"; } &
$ ls >mypipe
# Output: Prints the output of ls directly on screen

$ export pipedata
$ pipedata=$(<mypipe) &
$ ls -l *.sh >mypipe
$ echo "$pipedata"
#Output : Prints correctly the contents of mypipe

Error messages are generally included in a script for debugging purposes or for providing rich user experience. Simply writing error message like this:

cmd || echo 'cmd failed'

may work for simple cases but it's not the usual way. In this example, the error message will pollute the actual output of the script by mixing both errors and successful output in stdout.

In short, error message should go to stderr not stdout. It's pretty simple:

cmd || echo 'cmd failed' >/dev/stderr

Another example:

if cmd; then
    echo 'success'
else
    echo 'cmd failed' >/dev/stderr
fi

In the above example, the success message will be printed on stdout while the error message will be printed on stderr.

A better way to print error message is to define a function:

err(){
    echo "E: $*" >>/dev/stderr
}

Now, when you have to print an error:

err "My error message"

Bash treats some paths as special and can do some network communication by writing to /dev/{udp|tcp}/host/port. Bash cannot setup a listening server, but can initiate a connection, and for TCP can read the results at least.

For example, to send a simple web request one could do:

exec 3</dev/tcp/www.google.com/80
printf 'GET / HTTP/1.0\r\n\r\n' >&3
cat <&3

and the results of www.google.com's default web page will be printed to stdout.

Similarly

printf 'HI\n' >/dev/udp/192.168.1.1/6666

would send a UDP message containing HI\n to a listener on 192.168.1.1:6666

< reads from its right argument and writes to its left argument.

To write a file into STDIN we should read /tmp/a_file and write into STDIN i.e 0</tmp/a_file

Note: Internal file descriptor defaults to 0 (STDIN) for <

$ echo "b" > /tmp/list.txt
$ echo "a" >> /tmp/list.txt
$ echo "c" >> /tmp/list.txt
$ sort < /tmp/list.txt
a
b
c

2 is STDERR.

$ echo_to_stderr 2>/dev/null # echos nothing

Definitions:

echo_to_stderr is a command that writes "stderr" to STDERR

echo_to_stderr () {
    echo stderr >&2
}

$ echo_to_stderr
stderr

Commands have one input (STDIN) and two kinds of outputs, standard output (STDOUT) and standard error (STDERR).

For example:

STDIN

root@server~# read
Type some text here

Standard input is used to provide input to a program. (Here we're using the read builtin (opens new window) to read a line from STDIN.)

STDOUT

root@server~# ls file
file

Standard output is generally used for "normal" output from a command. For example, ls lists files, so the files are sent to STDOUT.

STDERR

root@server~# ls anotherfile
ls: cannot access 'anotherfile': No such file or directory

Standard error is (as the name implies) used for error messages. Because this message is not a list of files, it is sent to STDERR.

STDIN, STDOUT and STDERR are the three standard streams. They are identified to the shell by a number rather than a name:

0 = Standard in
1 = Standard out
2 = Standard error

By default, STDIN is attached to the keyboard, and both STDOUT and STDERR appear in the terminal. However, we can redirect either STDOUT or STDERR to whatever we need. For example, let's say that you only need the standard out and all error messages printed on standard error should be suppressed. That's when we use the descriptors 1 and 2.

Redirecting STDERR to /dev/null
Taking the previous example,

root@server~# ls anotherfile 2>/dev/null
root@server~#

In this case, if there is any STDERR, it will be redirected to /dev/null (a special file which ignores anything put into it), so you won't get any error output on the shell.

Syntax

• command </path/to/file # Redirect standard input to file
• command >/path/to/file # Redirect standard output to flie
• command file_descriptor>/path/to/file # Redirect output of file_descriptor to file
• command >&file_descriptor # Redirect output to file_descriptor
• command file_descriptor>&another_file_descriptor # Redirect file_descriptor to another_file_descriptor
• command <&file_descriptor # Redirect file_descriptor to standard input
• command &>/path/to/file # Redirect standard output and standard error to file

Parameters

Remarks

UNIX console programs have an input file and two output files (input and output streams, as well as devices, are treated as files by the OS.) These are typically the keyboard and screen, respectively, but any or all of them can be redirected to come from — or go to — a file or other program.

STDIN is standard input, and is how the program receives interactive input. STDIN is usually assigned file descriptor 0.

STDOUT is standard output. Whatever is emitted on STDOUT is considered the "result" of the program. STDOUT is usually assigned file descriptor 1.

STDERR is where error messages are displayed. Typically, when running a program from the console, STDERR is output on the screen and is indistinguishable from STDOUT. STDERR is usually assigned file descriptor 2.

The order of redirection is important

command > file 2>&1

Redirects both (STDOUT and STDERR) to the file.

command 2>&1 > file

Redirects only STDOUT, because the file descriptor 2 is redirected to the file pointed to by file descriptor 1 (which is not the file file yet when the statement is evaluated).

Each command in a pipeline has its own STDERR (and STDOUT) because each is a new process. This can create surprising results if you expect a redirect to affect the entire pipeline. For example this command (wrapped for legibility):

$ python -c 'import sys;print >> sys.stderr, "Python error!"' \
| cut -f1 2>> error.log

will print "Python error!" to the console rather than the log file. Instead, attach the error to the command you want to capture:

$ python -c 'import sys;print >> sys.stderr, "Python error!"' 2>> error.log \
| cut -f1